Participatory budgeting in Adjarra was part of a wider GIZ initiative in the country that sought to improve participation and create tailored positive outcomes for local citizens whilst also creating a transparent fiscal relationship with public officials.
Problems and Purpose
Participatory budgeting has been implemented in Benin, Adjarra in response to certain divisions of the public being under engaged or disinterested with the democratic processes. It is also a response to the neopatrimonialism and elite control that much of sub-Saharan Africa finds itself under. In hopes it will provide a change to the undemocratic nature of public sector finance distribution which is being increasingly voiced[i].
By giving individuals the power to affect how government resources are distributed this allows the democratic process to flow in a more direct manner. The hope is that the reform efforts will allow for effective public service delivery in Health, education and the enabling of safe water to needed areas. Whilst also creating fiscal transparency and a more efficient distribution of resources in a democratic context intended to be a form of sustainable governance[ii].
Background History and Context
Benin is a Francophone country located in sub-Saharan Africa. It gained independence from France on the 1st of august 1960. Budgeting Reforms have been implemented across sub-Saharan Africa since the 1980s. However their success at tackling the main problems of education, health, etc has been questioned. In many cases the positive effects end up stalling and the support for the projects are withdrawn. Participatory budgeting itself has only recently emerged on the continent with the first cases being observed in the Anglophone area of the continent. Due to the majority of African governance being neopatrimonialism in nature and many documented cases of elite corruption or undemocratic control and the closure of Benin politics this new wave of participatory budgeting is seen as groundbreaking for the continent[iii].
The countries politics is embodied by a lack of government transparency and strong political control of the state and its municipalities. Therefore the space for effective democratic reforms appear to be closed off leading to a lack of a larger body of research in the francophone context[iv].
Decentralisation was not discussed until the 1990s. it was seen as a way of reorganising the state to result in the meritocratic allocation of resources to local authorities. However decentralising did not occur in full till the 2000s organising the country into 77 municipalities .The first local elections were organised in 2002 and have been held semi-regularly. 25 out of the 77 municipalities chose to take part in the GIZ project[v]. Adjarra was a part of this GIZ project and will be the focus of this case study. Adjarra is a town in the Ouémé Department of Benin it has a population of roughly 97,000.
Organizing, Supporting, and Funding Entities
Initially the world bank were the main funding entity for the participatory budgeting in Benin and then by GIZ a German development agency. Who’s goal is to help strengthen democratic governance[vi]. The decision to use PB to was to help address the deficit in public participation in democracy. A GIZ representative said “The decision to go for the implementation of PB in the partner municipalities of our decentralisation and community development programme originates from the experiences made with this mechanism at the international level …”. The EU were also involved in the funding however the GIZ were in charge of the actual organisation and running of the project[vii]. The donors largely remained in the shadows instead choosing to use local civil society groups as the desired local actors due to the role played in local governments in the past. Meaning society organisations actually ran the operation on a practical level in Adjarra[viii].
PB Consultants were hired by donors to help consult on the set up and implementation of the project. The consultants from donors who chose to remain largely in the shadows were also used to train civil society members from indigenous organisations, who were then expected to lead PB adoption within the municipalities. The CSOs championed “the PB concept to mayors by presenting PB as a new tool that can help them” [ix].
The African branch of the IOPD (international observatory of participatory democracy) was used by donors to train facilitators from indigenous NGOs. Giving them a certification of “lead facilitator” as to keep to standard[x]. Other key stakeholders such as elected officials at the local level were also given training as to provide the “political will”[xi]. The donors staff were also appointed as technical assistants within central and local government. In Benin the central government set up the municipal development support fund to “allocate resources to local governments”
participant Recruitment and Selection
As previously mentioned the donors hired consultants to help train and individuals these participants were chosen due to their expertise in participatory budgeting. The civil society organisations were chosen due to the indigenous realties of a project such as this. Their local contextual knowledge and previous record was vital for helping enact change at the local and national level[xii]. A facilitator from an indigenous civil society organisation is required as part of the donor guidelines. The facilitators role is to be a “neutral actor” as to ensure the processes are without impediment from external actors. This was put formally in the 2020 PB guidelines.
The process of public forums was open to all who wished to participate and was held in the village halls of the villages in Adjarra[xiii]. The use of traditional chiefs was recruited by facilitators to mobilise the community in many cases due to their position of authority in Benin culture.
The process as mentioned relied on community outreach and local networks which was one reason for the use of domestic organisations to be facilitators. For example traditional chiefs were recruited by facilitators to mobilise the community in many cases due to their position of authority in Benin culture helping mobilise citizens to participate. These leaders also helped mobilise the needed financial resources according to a local civil society member[xiv].It is often assumed that there is a lack of women in African politics however Adjarra is an exception to this as it recorded a relatively high intake of women, 40-50%[xv].
Methods and Tools Used
Participatory budgeting is a method used to involve local communities in public financial management[xvi]. It hopes to create a more transparent relationship between the bureaucracy and the government and increase local participation. It involves local participants interacting with those in charge of resources in one way or another to provide input and ideally receive information[xvii].
Facilitators are individuals who have received training from consultants or specialists they are involved to oversee the operation and keep the operation running smoothly. Their jobs may include being a mediator and organising events for example[xviii].
Public hearings are forums normally organised in local town halls or centres of society where people are able to voice their thoughts and ask questions of local government. Local government can also use the opportunity to provide information or ask questions[xix]. These were chosen as to hopefully increase participation, provide a local political forum and produce a better relationship with local government. Giving citizens a say[xx].
The education processes implemented by the funders were also open to more than just facilitators they included committee members and leaders hoping to educate citizens as to provide thoughtful debate[xxi].
Small group deliberation (a forum with a more personal smaller group of individuals for dialogue) for smaller villages in some cases was used to gather input from these smaller or far away communities to allow for a more personal and accessible form of pb in Adjarra[xxii]. The organisers used dynamic facilitation whereby a facilitator was present with the hope it would help create a safe environment with a mediator[xxiii]. [xxiv]
What Went On: Process, Interaction, and Participation
In this case participatory budgeting was used in conjunction with trained facilitators to help increase public engagement and produce a more open fiscal relationship between the bureaucracy and the people. In practice participation was manifested in way of public hearings which allowed participants to have a say in the spending of money through discourse with officials whilst also helping create a better understanding of how the resources were being distributed. The public forums in Adjarrra were carried out in an accessible space where citizens could freely join and provide their input. This resulted in high rates of participation[xxv]. The commune was divided into zones as to counter act the long journey otherwise needed by some which could have been prohibitive this was found to increase participation. Which included women, young people, disabled people etc. The project was more of an attempt to create a discourse and more open fiscal relationship for transparency and recommendations within Adjarra rather than allow for definitive decisions to be made by public hearings. The results were communicated through these meetings themselves and by traditional chiefs. The main issues discussed in the public hearings were clean water and public health concerns[xxvi].
When a consensus could be reached by participants the relevent money was given directly to the community. One local civil society leader said ‘The other thing, it is to do everything so that the communities take charge of the infrastructure building… To that end, we transfer the PB funds directly into the CLCAM23 accounts of each community… It is the community that organizes itself for the construction of the infrastructure, with our assistance of course. Our belief is that it would impact people better if the community was in charge’ [MTO16][xxvii].
Influence, Outcomes, and Effects
A positive result of the schemes was the resource mobilisation that occurred where the community went above and beyond to raise money for the basic needs of the community such as water and health due to being given a place for social discourse and social capital through the project. Parties involved had a perceived high level of interest and took an interest in the delivery of expected outcomes[xxviii]. In Adjarra the pb initiative has successfully been used to mobilise resources for public goods such as health infrastructure, sanitation, clean water and rural roads to name a few. The case outlines the need for flexibility in PB and the practices should be in line with the local context to help address community issues[xxix]. In the successful case of Adjarra the empowerment of the indigenous members to help manage the finance allocation related to pb[xxx]. Despite the male dominated theme that runs through government in the continent the public hearings allowed for some development in women making their voice heard in a public setting[xxxi].
In many cases in spite of the constraints that may have occurred due to the legal bureaucratic impediments or practical ones the community was able to find pragmatic solutions to bypass these blockades due to the forum offered by the pb initiative[xxxii]. It has also allowed citizens in some cases to successfully influence elected officials to reallocate government resources towards the communities needs showing a successful use of the pb process. For example a local claimed ‘The community requested the renovation of the maternity unit of Malanwi. They acted in solidarity with each other and they succeeded’ [xxxiii].
Analysis and Lessons Learned
This section uses Smiths[xxxiv] chapters 1 and 2 on democratic innovations to analyse democratic goods within the project.
To promote participants engagement the meetings were set in the village hall a place known to all participants. It was also open to all participants who wanted to join. Adjarra also adjusted its approach so that a village-focus and district community focus could be blended when needed improving inclusion and increasing this democratic good. There was an unexpectedly large portion of women involved in the project with a 40-50% rate according to local civil society organisations. This is a good sign for the project showing it was inclusive and therefore more legitimate and allows for “constituting the demos” as Goodin[xxxv] puts it by enfranchising all members and breaking past the existing political boundaries. Participants could ask the public officials questions allowing them to gather the required information to participate. Anti-discrimination measures were also put in place to ensure that people could participate for example to make sure disabled people could enter[xxxvi]. This is another example of “enfranchising all affected interests”[xxxvii].
The examples of the coming together of the community to fund projects that didn’t benefit them due to the public forums is evidence of considered judgement and empathy. As people were willing to help fund and listen to something that didn’t benefit them. This shows people can appreciate the views and needs of other participants as otherwise they would not be willing to put their own time, effort and money towards someone else’s cause. More taxes were also collected a sign that there was an increase in empathy. This is an example of what Arendt calls “enlarged mentality”[xxxviii].
In many instances it was observed that public forums gave citizens the ability to pressure public officials to change their decisions and do what the electorate wanted. After people voiced their needs in the public forums the mayor and community leaders assessed what to do. The funds in Adjarra were given directly to the communities so that they may take charge of the infrastructure building with the government still helping but from a backseat. Providing a bottom up feeling to the project. This shows that the project has helped put the agenda setting power in the hands of the participants and given them more control then they had. While it is not perfect it is at least a step in the right direction and is proof that citizens were on some level able to share power as smith advocates for[xxxix].[xl]
In the case of Adjorra. Citizen participation is crucial in the sustainability of PB. It appears that trust is a defining factor in this participation as lead civil society members stated mayoral officials must answer to citizens and community groups due to PB and community members participation will go “beyond their tax payment obligations”[xli] if done well. As mentioned the public forums gave citizens the opportunity to scrutinise public officials. In Adjarra public officials frequently attended the public forums and took questions from participants allowing a proper process of accountability to take place. This is in line with what Warren understands is fundamental for building trust and creating transparency[xlii]. Given that the public forums set up were open to all and garnered a lot of participation it meant that participants and the public were one and the anyone was allowed to be involved in the scrutinization process and find out information being discussed. This adds to the transparency of the project and is evidence of a democratic good.[xliii]In Adjarra the funds allocated to each community are deposited directly in the CLAM accounts of each of the individuals communities leaving the community in charge. This bottom up budgeting creates social and political accountability at the grassroots and community level whilst also implementing fiscal transparency as Warren advocates for[xliv]
[xlv]Given the many problems from education, water sanitation and healthcare that are ongoing in Benin it is reasonable to calculate that the cost/benefit ratio for participants is a relatively reasonable one. Given the success of the project and increase in healthcare for example it can be understood that the time and effort from participants has not been wasted and has resulted in an extremely beneficial outcome for the community. From the view of the civil society organisations although time was taken for training for those involved and then time committed to facilitating or helping the project it has resulted in a beneficial outcome and increased democratic participation and produced practical positive outcomes in infrastructure. As this is one of the main goals of these civil society organisations [xlvi]the time spent has had a beneficial outcome.
The model of participatory budgeting using public forums can be transferred relatively well in other societies although may have trouble at a macro level. It works well in this small scale as seen in Adjarra as it is easy to gather participants in one place and it is a small enough scale where meaningful conversation and debate can occur. It is also a community with local leaders and networks making it easier to get people to participate. At a larger level it may struggle to have a similar effect without community networks. It also works as the outcomes of the budgeting were Tailor made for specific communities within the municipality this may be difficult to do on a larger scale but the as Adjarra learnt it can be achieved through this tailor made approach setting a blueprint for effective division within an area.
[1][1][1]
[i] Lassou, P.J., Ostojic, M., Barboza, J.U. and Moses, O., 2024. Participatory budgeting in francophone Africa: a comparative perspective between Benin and Niger. Journal of Public Budgeting, Accounting & Financial Management, 36(1), pp.81-104.
[ii] Lassou, P.J., Ostojic, M., Barboza, J.U. and Moses, O., 2024. Participatory budgeting in francophone Africa: a comparative perspective between Benin and Niger. Journal of Public Budgeting, Accounting & Financial Management, 36(1), pp.81-104.
[iii] Lassou, P.J., Ostojic, M., Barboza, J.U. and Moses, O., 2024. Participatory budgeting in francophone Africa: a comparative perspective between Benin and Niger. Journal of Public Budgeting, Accounting & Financial Management, 36(1), pp.81-104.
[iv] Lassou, P.J., Ostojic, M., Barboza, J.U. and Moses, O., 2024. Participatory budgeting in francophone Africa: a comparative perspective between Benin and Niger. Journal of Public Budgeting, Accounting & Financial Management, 36(1), pp.81-104.
[v] Lassou, P.J.C., Jayasinghe, K., Soobaroyen, T., Adhikari, P., Wynne, A. and Akakpo, M., 2021. Fostering health service delivery via public financial management: the case of participatory budgeting in Benin’s local governments. World Bank, Washington, DC.
[vi] Lassou, P.J., Ostojic, M., Barboza, J.U. and Moses, O., 2024. Participatory budgeting in francophone Africa: a comparative perspective between Benin and Niger. Journal of Public Budgeting, Accounting & Financial Management, 36(1), pp.81-104.
[vii] Lassou, P.J., Ostojic, M., Barboza, J.U. and Moses, O., 2024. Participatory budgeting in francophone Africa: a comparative perspective between Benin and Niger. Journal of Public Budgeting, Accounting & Financial Management, 36(1), pp.81-104.
[viii] Lassou, P.J., Ostojic, M., Barboza, J.U. and Moses, O., 2024. Participatory budgeting in francophone Africa: a comparative perspective between Benin and Niger. Journal of Public Budgeting, Accounting & Financial Management, 36(1), pp.81-104.
[ix] Lassou, P.J., Ostojic, M., Barboza, J.U. and Moses, O., 2024. Participatory budgeting in francophone Africa: a comparative perspective between Benin and Niger. Journal of Public Budgeting, Accounting & Financial Management, 36(1), pp.81-104.
[x] Lassou, P.J., Ostojic, M., Barboza, J.U. and Moses, O., 2024. Participatory budgeting in francophone Africa: a comparative perspective between Benin and Niger. Journal of Public Budgeting, Accounting & Financial Management, 36(1), pp.81-104.
[xi] Wampler, B., 2007. Can participatory institutions promote pluralism? Mobilizing low-income citizens in Brazil. Studies in Comparative International Development, 41(4), p.57.
[xii] Lassou, P.J.C., Jayasinghe, K., Soobaroyen, T., Adhikari, P., Wynne, A. and Akakpo, M., 2021. Fostering health service delivery via public financial management: the case of participatory budgeting in Benin’s local governments. World Bank, Washington, DC.
[xiii] Lassou, P.J.C., Jayasinghe, K., Soobaroyen, T., Adhikari, P., Wynne, A. and Akakpo, M., 2021. Fostering health service delivery via public financial management: the case of participatory budgeting in Benin’s local governments. World Bank, Washington, DC.
[xiv] [xiv] Lassou, P.J.C., Jayasinghe, K., Soobaroyen, T., Adhikari, P., Wynne, A. and Akakpo, M., 2021. Fostering health service delivery via public financial management: the case of participatory budgeting in Benin’s local governments. World Bank, Washington, DC.
[xv] [xv] Lassou, P.J.C., Jayasinghe, K., Soobaroyen, T., Adhikari, P., Wynne, A. and Akakpo, M., 2021. Fostering health service delivery via public financial management: the case of participatory budgeting in Benin’s local governments. World Bank, Washington, DC.
[xvi] Shah, A. ed., 2007. Participatory budgeting. World Bank Publications.
[xvii] Shah, A. ed., 2007. Participatory budgeting. World Bank Publications.
[xviii] Su, C., 2017. Beyond inclusion: Critical race theory and participatory budgeting. New Political Science, 39(1), pp.126-142.
[xix] Checkoway, B., 1981. The politics of public hearings. The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 17(4), pp.566-582.
[xx] Lassou, P.J.C., Jayasinghe, K., Soobaroyen, T., Adhikari, P., Wynne, A. and Akakpo, M., 2021. Fostering health service delivery via public financial management: the case of participatory budgeting in Benin’s local governments. World Bank, Washington, DC.
[xxi][xxi] Lassou, P.J.C., Jayasinghe, K., Soobaroyen, T., Adhikari, P., Wynne, A. and Akakpo, M., 2021. Fostering health service delivery via public financial management: the case of participatory budgeting in Benin’s local governments. World Bank, Washington, DC.
[xxii] Lassou, P.J.C., Jayasinghe, K., Soobaroyen, T., Adhikari, P., Wynne, A. and Akakpo, M., 2021. Fostering health service delivery via public financial management: the case of participatory budgeting in Benin’s local governments. World Bank, Washington, DC.
[xxiii] Lassou, P.J.C., Jayasinghe, K., Soobaroyen, T., Adhikari, P., Wynne, A. and Akakpo, M., 2021. Fostering health service delivery via public financial management: the case of participatory budgeting in Benin’s local governments. World Bank, Washington, DC.
[xxv] Lassou, P.J.C., Jayasinghe, K., Soobaroyen, T., Adhikari, P., Wynne, A. and Akakpo, M., 2021. Fostering health service delivery via public financial management: the case of participatory budgeting in Benin’s local governments. World Bank, Washington, DC.
[xxvi] Lassou, P.J.C., Jayasinghe, K., Soobaroyen, T., Adhikari, P., Wynne, A. and Akakpo, M., 2021. Fostering health service delivery via public financial management: the case of participatory budgeting in Benin’s local governments. World Bank, Washington, DC.
[xxvii] Lassou, P.J.C., Jayasinghe, K., Soobaroyen, T., Adhikari, P., Wynne, A. and Akakpo, M., 2021. Fostering health service delivery via public financial management: the case of participatory budgeting in Benin’s local governments. World Bank, Washington, DC.
[xxviii] Lassou, P.J.C., Jayasinghe, K., Soobaroyen, T., Adhikari, P., Wynne, A. and Akakpo, M., 2021. Fostering health service delivery via public financial management: the case of participatory budgeting in Benin’s local governments. World Bank, Washington, DC.
[xxix] Lassou, P.J.C., Jayasinghe, K., Soobaroyen, T., Adhikari, P., Wynne, A. and Akakpo, M., 2021. Fostering health service delivery via public financial management: the case of participatory budgeting in Benin’s local governments. World Bank, Washington, DC.
[xxx] Lassou, P.J.C., Jayasinghe, K., Soobaroyen, T., Adhikari, P., Wynne, A. and Akakpo, M., 2021. Fostering health service delivery via public financial management: the case of participatory budgeting in Benin’s local governments. World Bank, Washington, DC.
[xxxi] Participatory budgeting in Adjarra was part of a wider GIZ initiative in the country that sought to improve participation and create tailored positive outcomes for local citizens whilst also creating a transparent fiscal relationship with public officials.
[xxxii] Lassou, P.J.C., Jayasinghe, K., Soobaroyen, T., Adhikari, P., Wynne, A. and Akakpo, M., 2021. Fostering health service delivery via public financial management: the case of participatory budgeting in Benin’s local governments. World Bank, Washington, DC.
[xxxiii] Lassou, P.J.C., Jayasinghe, K., Soobaroyen, T., Adhikari, P., Wynne, A. and Akakpo, M., 2021. Fostering health service delivery via public financial management: the case of participatory budgeting in Benin’s local governments. World Bank, Washington, DC.
[xxxiv] Smith, G., 2009. Democratic innovations: Designing institutions for citizen participation. Cambridge University Press.
[xxxv] Goodin, Robert E. "Enfranchising all affected interests, and its alternatives." Phil. & Pub. Aff. 35 (2007): 40.
[xxxvi] Participatory budgeting in Adjarra was part of a wider GIZ initiative in the country that sought to improve participation and create tailored positive outcomes for local citizens whilst also creating a transparent fiscal relationship with public officials.
[xxxvii] Goodin, Robert E. "Enfranchising all affected interests, and its alternatives." Phil. & Pub. Aff. 35 (2007): 40.
[xxxviii] Arendt, H. and Hill, M.A., 1979. On Hannah Arendt.
[xxxix] Smith, G., 2009. Democratic innovations: Designing institutions for citizen participation. Cambridge University Press.
[xli] Lassou, P.J.C., Jayasinghe, K., Soobaroyen, T., Adhikari, P., Wynne, A. and Akakpo, M., 2021. Fostering health service delivery via public financial management: the case of participatory budgeting in Benin’s local governments. World Bank, Washington, DC.
[xlii] Warren, M.E. ed., 1999. Democracy and trust. Cambridge University Press.
[xliii] Warren, M.E. ed., 1999. Democracy and trust. Cambridge University Press.
[xliv] Warren, M.E. ed., 1999. Democracy and trust. Cambridge University Press.
[xlv][xlv][xlv][xlv][xlv][xlv][xlv][xlv][xlv]
[xlvi] [xlvi] Lassou, P.J., Ostojic, M., Barboza, J.U. and Moses, O., 2024. Participatory budgeting in francophone Africa: a comparative perspective between Benin and Niger. Journal of Public Budgeting, Accounting & Financial Management, 36(1), pp.81-104.