The fifth session of the Citizens’ Assembly took place on January 13–14, 2018 and focused on the manner in which referenda are held in Ireland, examining issues such as campaign regulation, voter participation, and options for reforming the referendum process.
Background of The Citizens’ Assembly
The Citizens’ Assembly was established by a resolution approved by the Irish Parliament in July 2016, following a commitment made by the newly elected government in its Programme for Government. Its work concluded in the late spring of 2018. The Assembly followed the model of the 2012–2014 Irish Constitutional Convention, comprising 99 randomly selected citizens and an independent chair, a Supreme Court judge. A major change to the previous model was the removal of politicians from the membership, which was probably the result of a tradeoff which saw abortion included in the agenda. The Assembly was tasked with considering five key issues: abortion, the challenges and opportunities of an aging population, fixed-term parliaments, the manner in which referenda are held, and how the state could position Ireland as a leader in tackling climate change. These topics were chosen partly due to Fine Gael’s election commitments, international pressure and negotiations between coalition partners (Farrell et al., 2019). It functioned with the same key principles as the Convention: openness, fairness, equality of voice, efficiency, respect and collegiality.
The Citizens’ Assembly was established by a resolution of the Irish Parliament in July 2016 (The Citizens’ Assembly, n.d.), following a commitment in the newly elected government’s Programme for Government (here). Its work concluded in late spring 2018. Modeled on the 2012–2014 Irish Constitutional Convention, the Assembly comprised 99 randomly selected citizens and an independent chair, a Supreme Court judge. A key distinction from the previous model was the exclusion of politicians from the membership—the result of a tradeoff that facilitated the inclusion of abortion on the agenda.
The Assembly was tasked with examining five key issues: abortion, the challenges and opportunities of an aging population, fixed-term parliaments, the conduct of referenda, and Ireland’s role in addressing climate change. These topics were influenced by Fine Gael’s election pledges, international pressures, and coalition negotiations. Meetings were livestreamed, and public submissions were invited (Farrell et al., 2019). The Assembly was originally expected to complete its work within a year of its first meeting; however, this deadline was extended in October 2017 and again in March 2018, ultimately concluding on 27 April 2018 (The Citizens’ Assembly, n.d.). The government formally responded to each of the Assembly’s reports.
The Assembly was funded by the Department of the Taoiseach, with total costs reaching €2,355,557 by March 2019 (Department of the Taoiseach, 2019). It operated under the same guiding principles as the Convention: openness, fairness, equality of voice, efficiency, respect, and collegiality.
Referenda in Ireland
Referendums are a central feature of Irish constitutional democracy, mandated for all amendments to the Constitution under Articles 46 and 47. Since 1937, over 30 referendums have been held, with topics ranging from divorce and abortion to EU treaties and judicial reform. However, the conduct of referendums has raised recurring concerns about clarity, fairness, and accessibility. Key issues include the binary nature of referendum questions, the shortfalls in voter education, unequal campaign financing, and limited voting options for citizens abroad. The Citizens’ Assembly was tasked with considering how referenda could be improved to better reflect democratic principles and adapt to modern expectations of participation
Structure of the Convention
Membership selection
The Citizens’ Assembly was designed as a deliberative mini-public and consisted of 99 members who were selected randomly from the wider population. The selection process, conducted by the market research company RED C (RTE, 2016), was stratified across four demographic categories: sex, age, social class, and region. Recruitment involved door-to-door cold calling, ensuring that the final group reflected the diversity of Irish society. In addition to the primary members, 99 substitute members were also selected (Farrell et al., 2019).
Governance
Chairperson
The Chairperson was responsible for running the Convention and engaging necessary support services for its effective administration. As the main moderator, the Chairperson was selected by the Prime Minister (Taoiseach) and was independent. They had direction and control over the staff of the secretariat and other resources available, subject to the wishes of the Convention. The Chairperson also made recommendations on the management of business as needed.
Due to the controversial nature of the issue of abortion, the Citizens’ Assembly was chaired by a Supreme Court judge, protecting its deliberation and results from accusation of bias and safeguarding the impartiality of the proceedings.
Secretary and Secretariat
The Secretary and Secretariat were responsible for handling the logistics of the assembly, ensuring the smooth operation of the Convention. The assembly's secretariat was drawn from the Prime Minister’s (Taoiseach) Department.
Expert Advisory Panel
The Oireachtas resolution establishing the Assembly states that “an Expert Advisory Group will be established to assist the work of the Assembly in terms of preparing information and advice.” The Expert Advisory Group’s Terms of Reference are available here.
The main roles of the Expert Advisory Group included:
- Supporting the Chair and Secretariat in constructing a fair, balanced, and comprehensive work programme for the Assembly on each topic.
- Providing background expert advice on the issues being discussed.
- Advising on the criteria for selecting specialists/experts to appear before the Assembly.
- Recommending names for the specialists/experts to appear before the Assembly, for ratification by the Steering Group.
- Working with the Chair and Secretariat to select speakers from civil society and advocacy groups.
The composition of the Expert Advisory Group changed during the lifetime of the Assembly, adapting to the topics under discussion.
The Expert Advisory Group supporting the Citizens’ Assembly on the issue of referenda included specialists in constitutional law, political science, deliberative democracy, and political communication. Its members were selected for their impartiality and subject-matter expertise and included figures such as Professor Oran Doyle (Trinity College Dublin), Professor Robert Elgie (Dublin City University), Professor John Garry (Queen’s University Belfast), and Dr Theresa Reidy (University College Cork).
Steering Group
Following the rules and procedures, a Steering Group was formed to ensure the efficient and effective operation of the Assembly, contributing to planning, coordinating logistical matters, and supporting the overall work programme. The group consisted of the Chairperson and a representative selection of Assembly Members, who were elected by their peers. Their Terms of Reference are available here.
Structure of plenary session
Proceedings
The Citizens’ Assembly examined the manner in which referenda are held over a single weekend in January 2018. The plenary sessions were condensed yet comprehensive, designed to provide members with a robust understanding of Ireland’s referendum process and its potential shortcomings. The weekend began with an overview of the country’s referendum history and legal framework, followed by expert-led presentations on campaign regulation, media roles, voter turnout, and citizens’ initiatives. Members explored key challenges such as biased media coverage, unequal campaign funding, and ambiguity in referendum wording. Deliberation also extended to proposed reforms, including multi-option ballots, super referendums, and citizen-initiated referenda. Roundtable discussions facilitated in-depth engagement, while plenary Q&A sessions enabled clarification and reflection. Presentations were supported by briefing papers and legal case summaries. The final Sunday session was dedicated to discussing and finalising the draft ballot paper, ensuring members were fully prepared for the subsequent vote.
Voting and ballots
Voting took place by secret ballot on Sunday, 14 January 2018, overseen by an independent returning officer. Members voted on a wide range of reform proposals, grouped under themes such as campaign organisation, voting access, and citizen participation. Notable outcomes included:
- 94% supported transferring the functions of the Referendum Commission to a permanent Electoral Commission.
- 76% supported the use of multi-option ballots in constitutional referendums.
- 89% recommended that referendum outcomes should be implemented within five years.
- 100% supported weekend voting, and 70% supported online voting.
- 80% backed lowering the voting age to 16.
Recommendation and Government response
The Citizens’ Assembly made detailed recommendations aimed at enhancing transparency, fairness, and participation in referendums. These included establishing a permanent Electoral Commission with a role in campaign oversight and voter education; permitting multi-option referendums; extending voting rights to emigrants; and introducing online, weekend, and postal voting. The Assembly also called for constitutional and legislative amendments to support citizen-initiated referenda and improved accessibility of polling locations. While the government acknowledged the report, no dedicated parliamentary committee was established to follow up, and progress on implementation has been limited to date.
Government response
Despite the breadth and clarity of the Assembly’s recommendations, the government response has been minimal. While the proposal to establish an Electoral Commission was later acted upon with the formation of the Electoral Commission of Ireland in 2023, many other recommendations—such as those on multi-option voting, voter participation mechanisms, and citizen initiatives—have yet to be pursued. The absence of a formal follow-up process or Oireachtas debate has led to concerns about accountability and the limited translation of deliberative outcomes into legislative action.
