Problems and Purpose

Black-legged kittiwakes (Rissa tridactyla) traditionally breed in colonies on steep coastal cliffs. In recent decades, deteriorating breeding conditions at many traditional colonies, including reduced food availability, lower breeding success, and increased predation, have contributed to the establishment of urban nesting colonies in several Norwegian coastal towns, including Tromsø (Artsdatabanken, 2021; NINA, 2023a).

As the urban colony expanded, nesting on public and commercial buildings generated conflict over noise, droppings, building maintenance, and the use of urban space. Property owners responded with deterrents such as nets, spikes, sloping ledges, and nest removal. However, because kittiwakes show strong fidelity to breeding sites, excluding birds from one building often displaced them to neighbouring structures rather than removing them from the city, redistributing rather than resolving conflict (NINA, 2023a; Rissa Citizen Science, 2025).

The initiative emerged as an alternative to building-by-building deterrence. This collaboration developed to test whether purpose-built nesting structures, commonly described as “kittiwake hotels,” could concentrate colonies in locations where they would be less disruptive while providing alternative breeding sites. Its documented purposes included protecting building façades, reducing conflict between birds and people, learning which forms and locations of artificial nesting structures kittiwakes would accept, and developing longer-term arrangements for urban coexistence (Tromsø Municipality, 2023; NINA, 2023a).

Background History and Context

The black-legged kittiwake (Rissa tridactyla) is listed as endangered on Norway’s Red List. Its population along the Norwegian coast has declined substantially in recent decades. Researchers associate this decline with changes in marine food availability, climate-related ecological change, predation, and reduced breeding success at traditional coastal colonies (NINA, 2023a; NINA, 2023b).

Urban nesting by kittiwakes is not unique to Tromsø. Colonies have been established for longer periods in Norwegian towns including Ålesund, Rørvik, and Vardø, while more recent urban colonies have developed in Tromsø and Hammerfest. Towns may offer protection from some natural predators, but nesting on buildings also exposes the birds to disturbance, nest removal, and deterrence measures (NINA, 2023a; NINA, 2023b).

Public sources differ slightly regarding when urban nesting began in Tromsø. Tromsø Kunstforening reports that kittiwakes began nesting on the façade of its building at Muségata 2 in 2016, while Rissa Citizen Science refers to the first pair being recorded in the city in 2015. NINA began systematic monitoring of Tromsø’s urban kittiwake population in 2017 (Tromsø Kunstforening, 2023; Rissa Citizen Science, n.d.).

The urban colony expanded rapidly after this initial settlement. NINA recorded approximately 13 breeding pairs in 2017 and more than 380 pairs by 2022. Sources associated with the coexistence initiative later reported approximately 800 breeding pairs by 2023 or 2024,although these later figures vary across public sources and have not been reconciled against a single published scientific count (Tromsø Kunstforening, 2023; NINA, 2023b; Conference of the Birds, 2024).

As the urban colony expanded, important nesting concentrations developed on public and commercial buildings, including Tromsø Kunstforening, the county administration building (Fylkeshuset), the Fram Centre, and the former Mack Øst building. The seasonal return of the birds generated increasing conflict over noise, droppings, building maintenance, and the use of deterrents such as nets, spikes, and the removal of nests or nesting ledges. Because kittiwakes show strong fidelity to previous nesting sites, excluding them from one building often displaced them to neighbouring properties rather than removing them from the urban environment (NINA, 2023a).

The growing colony also generated contrasting public responses. Local media coverage and many residents and property owners emphasised the nuisance created by the birds and called for their removal from buildings. At the same time, researchers, artists, and conservation advocates argued that the birds' movement into towns reflected wider ecological change and highlighted the need to develop approaches based on coexistence rather than exclusion. Within the public programme that later accompanied the initiative, some participants described the kittiwakes as "climate refugees," framing their urban colonisation as a consequence of human-driven environmental change rather than simply a wildlife-management problem (Tromsø Kunstforening, 2023; Conference of the Birds, 2024).

The issue also acquired an institutional dimension. Tromsø Municipality incorporated urban kittiwake management into its Climate, Environment and Energy Plan 2018–2025. Among the plan's biodiversity actions was a commitment to initiate a collaborative project with the Norwegian Institute for Nature Research (NINA) to establish a kittiwake hotel in Tromsø, indicating municipal support for exploring alternative responses to urban nesting before the subsequent design, research, and public-engagement activities documented in this case (Tromsø Municipality, 2018).

Organizing, Supporting, and Funding Entities

Tromsø Municipality initiated and coordinated important parts of the project. It incorporated a kittiwake-hotel proposal into its environmental planning, commissioned architectural work, supported experimental structures, provided public information, and participated in the development of later hotels. The municipality asked AT Arkitektur to propose measures for protecting the façade of Tromsø Kunstforening and to design alternative nesting installations (Tromsø Municipality, 2018; Tromsø Municipality, 2023).

The Norwegian Institute for Nature Research provided ornithological expertise and monitoring. Named researchers included Tone Kristin Reiertsen and Karl-Otto Jacobsen. NINA advised on the location and design of nesting structures and documented whether the birds occupied them (NINA, 2023a; NINA, 2023b).

AT Arkitektur contributed architectural design and project development. Architect Kjeld Nash worked with municipal officials, researchers, and artists on the design, placement, and modification of the nesting structures. Artists Lawrence Malstaf and Kåre Grundvåg also contributed to the early prototypes and to later proposals for larger and more permanent structures (Tromsø Municipality, 2023).

Tromsø Kunstforening participated as both a cultural institution and the host of an urban kittiwake colony. It provided a site for early experiments and organised the 2023 exhibition I Love Seagulls! An Exhibition About Living Together. The exhibition was curated by Kåre Aleksander Grundvåg and Camilla Fagerli (Tromsø Kunstforening, 2023).

The municipality identified the principal partners in Urbane krykkjer as Tromsø Municipality, AT Plan og Arkitektur, NINA, Tromsø Kunstforening, Lawrence Malstaf, and Kåre Grundvåg. NINA also referred to collaboration with BirdLife and researchers associated with the UiT project Fuglan Veit, although publicly available documentation does not clearly specify the responsibilities of each participant (Tromsø Municipality, 2023; NINA, 2023b).

The I Love Seagulls! exhibition received support from Tromsø Municipality, Troms and Finnmark County, the Norwegian Ministry of Culture and Equality, Bildende Kunstneres Hjelpefond, Arts Council Norway, KORO, and NOFI. These organisations supported the exhibition and should not necessarily be understood as funders of every part of the wider nesting-infrastructure programme (Tromsø Kunstforening, 2023).

Later nesting structures had separate funding arrangements. Two compensatory hotels constructed at the former Mack Øst site in 2025 were financed by Mack and developed through collaboration involving NINA researcher Tone Reiertsen, municipal official Robert Lund Mentzoni, architect Kjeld Nash, and artist Lawrence Malstaf (Rissa Citizen Science, 2025a).

Public documentation does not provide a consolidated budget for the overall initiative or specify the total municipal expenditure on design, construction, monitoring, maintenance, or public programming.

Participant Recruitment and Selection

Municipal officials, NINA researchers, architects, and artists participated through their organisational or professional roles. Tromsø Municipality also formed an informal interdisciplinary resource group consisting of a project manager, architects, researchers, artists, business actors, students, and representatives of relevant organisations. The purpose of the group was to bring together different forms of knowledge and consider approaches to coexistence between people and urban kittiwakes (Tromsø Municipality, 2023).

Public documentation does not specify the size of this resource group, the selection criteria used, how individuals were invited, how often the group met, or whether residents and property owners affected by the colonies were directly represented.

Members of the public could participate in the cultural programme through the I Love Seagulls! exhibition, guided tours, and an interdisciplinary seminar. The exhibition was publicly accessible, and the guided tours were free, but attendance figures and participant characteristics have not been published (Tromsø Kunstforening, 2023; Tromsø Kunstforening, n.d.).

A later volunteer strand developed through Rissa Citizen Science. Its volunteers, known as Kittiwalkers, monitored nests, documented deterrence measures and nest destruction, communicated with property owners, reported incidents, and assisted injured birds and fallen chicks. (Rissa Citizen Science, n.d.).

The kittiwakes were not represented through a formally appointed spokesperson or representative. Instead, researchers, architects, artists, municipal officials, and later citizen-science volunteers developed interventions in response to the observed behaviour of specific urban breeding colonies in Tromsø. Early mobile nesting structures were designed around the colony occupying Tromsø Kunstforening and were placed immediately adjacent to existing nests because ecological research indicated that kittiwakes exhibit strong fidelity to breeding sites. Later interventions similarly targeted colonies affected by redevelopment, including the Mack Øst colony, where replacement nesting structures were constructed before demolition of the building (Tromsø Municipality, 2023; NINA, 2023a; Rissa Citizen Science, 2025).

Methods and Tools Used

The project combined collaborative design, ecological monitoring, architectural experimentation, public art, public discussion, and citizen science.

The principal material tool was the artificial nesting structure or kittiwake hotel. Early hotels were temporary and mobile. They incorporated ledges intended to reproduce some of the physical characteristics of nesting sites used on cliffs and building façades. Researchers and designers tested the importance of location, height, form, colour, material, proximity to existing colonies, and the availability of alternative ledges (Tromsø Municipality, 2023; NINA, 2023a).

The project used iterative prototyping. Initial structures were observed during breeding seasons and were modified or relocated depending on whether the birds occupied them. The mobile hotels near Tromsø Kunstforening were positioned close to former nests and were intended to be moved gradually towards a less disruptive part of Muséparken after the birds accepted them (Tromsø Municipality, 2023).

Scientific observation was used to monitor nest numbers, occupancy, breeding activity, and the responses of birds to deterrents and artificial structures. NINA researchers combined observations of the Tromsø hotels with wider research on urban kittiwake behaviour (NINA, 2023a; NINA, 2023b).

Architectural and artistic design were used together. Some proposals treated the permanent hotels not only as wildlife infrastructure but also as visible sculptural structures in public space. Lawrence Malstaf, Kjeld Nash, and other collaborators developed designs informed by earlier prototypes and scientific observations.

Public-engagement tools included an exhibition, guided tours, an interdisciplinary seminar, film, sound works, interactive artworks, signage, banners, and QR-linked information. These activities presented scientific, artistic, and activist perspectives on seabirds and urban coexistence (Tromsø Kunstforening, 2023).

Citizen-science tools included volunteer walking surveys, mapping of nest sites, photographic documentation, monitoring of deterrents, reporting of suspected nest destruction, and communication with property owners and municipal actors. Rissa Citizen Science used these observations to publish estimates of nest loss and changes in the distribution of colonies (Rissa Citizen Science, n.d.; Rissa Citizen Science, 2025b).

What Went On: Process, Interaction, and Participation

The initiative developed over several breeding seasons through an iterative process of experimentation involving municipal authorities, researchers, architects, artists, cultural organisations, and, later, citizen-science volunteers. Rather than implementing a predetermined solution, participants repeatedly tested alternative interventions, observed how kittiwakes responded, and refined subsequent designs and management approaches before the following breeding season.

The collaboration formally began after Tromsø Municipality included the establishment of a kittiwake hotel in its Climate, Environment and Energy Plan 2018–2025. Working with the Norwegian Institute for Nature Research (NINA), the municipality sought alternatives to building-by-building deterrence. As plans progressed, Tromsø Municipality commissioned AT Arkitektur to develop proposals that would both protect the façade of Tromsø Kunstforening and provide alternative nesting opportunities for kittiwakes. An interdisciplinary resource group was established, bringing together municipal staff, researchers, architects, artists, students, business representatives, and other organisations to exchange knowledge and develop responses to the growing urban colony (Tromsø Municipality, 2018; Tromsø Municipality, 2023).

The collaboration deliberately combined different forms of knowledge throughout the design process. NINA researchers contributed ecological evidence on breeding behaviour, site fidelity, and habitat requirements; architects and artists translated this knowledge into experimental nesting structures; municipal officials coordinated planning, permissions, and implementation; while cultural organisations facilitated public engagement. Rather than relying on a single technical solution, participants worked through repeated cycles of observation, experimentation, and redesign, allowing ecological knowledge and design practice to develop together over successive breeding seasons.

The first experimental kittiwake hotels were installed in 2022 near existing urban colonies, including sites close to the Fram Centre and Tromsø Kunstforening. Their placement reflected ecological research demonstrating that kittiwakes exhibit strong fidelity to established nesting sites and were therefore unlikely to relocate to distant structures. Researchers and designers monitored how birds responded to different prototype locations and designs, examining factors such as proximity to existing colonies, height, orientation, materials, nesting ledges, exposure to sun, wind and shadow, surrounding urban activity, and the potential to relocate structures over time. Observations from each breeding season informed successive modifications to both the design and placement of later hotels (Tromsø Municipality, 2023; NINA, 2023a; Forskning.no, 2023).

One distinctive feature of the project was the development of mobile nesting structures. Rather than attempting to move birds immediately away from occupied buildings, several hotels were first positioned adjacent to the colony nesting on Tromsø Kunstforening. Once occupied, these structures could be relocated incrementally towards Muséparken, gradually shifting breeding activity away from conflict-prone façades while remaining within the birds' accepted nesting range. As the project evolved, participants also adapted planning and construction schedules to the seasonal arrival and breeding cycle of kittiwakes so that new structures could be installed before colonies returned each spring, rather than following conventional municipal planning timelines.

Alongside the architectural experiments, the initiative incorporated public engagement through cultural programming. Between June and October 2023, Tromsø Kunstforening presented I Love Seagulls! An Exhibition About Living Together, which brought together artistic, scientific, and activist perspectives on urban seabirds. The exhibition was accompanied by guided tours, public events, and the interdisciplinary seminar Can People and Birds Be Friends?, where researchers, architects, artists, philosophers, musicians, and members of the public discussed the ecological, cultural, and practical dimensions of urban coexistence. While these activities did not function as formal decision-making forums, they created opportunities for public learning and dialogue around the ongoing project (Tromsø Kunstforening, 2023; Conference of the Birds, 2023).

The project subsequently expanded beyond temporary prototypes. Knowledge generated through the early experiments informed proposals for larger and more permanent nesting structures in Muséparken and, later, compensatory hotels associated with urban redevelopment, including the former Mack Øst site. By the 2024 breeding season, citizen participation had also expanded through the Kittiwalkers, a citizen-science initiative coordinated by Rissa Citizen Science. Volunteers monitored urban colonies, mapped nests, documented deterrence measures, and reported injured birds, contributing additional observations on the distribution and movement of kittiwake colonies across the city (Rissa Citizen Science, 2024).

At the time of writing, the initiative continues as an adaptive process rather than a completed intervention. Public documentation indicates that observations from each breeding season continue to inform subsequent planning, allowing ecological research, architectural design, municipal practice, and citizen monitoring to evolve together through ongoing experimentation and refinement.

Influence, Outcomes, and Effects

At the time of writing, the initiative has not been subject to a comprehensive independent evaluation. The outcomes reported below are drawn primarily from annual monitoring undertaken by Rissa Citizen Science between 2024 and 2026, complemented by publications from the Norwegian Institute for Nature Research (NINA) and Tromsø Municipality. As the Rissa findings are based on structured volunteer observations, they should be understood as citizen-science monitoring rather than official population censuses.

The monitoring indicates that artificial nesting structures have become an increasingly effective component of Tromsø's approach to managing urban kittiwakes. Between 2023 and 2026, occupancy generally increased at several hotels as structures remained in place and designs were progressively refined. By 2026, Tromsø contained nine kittiwake hotels providing 1,112 nesting ledges. Hotel 3 in Muséparken remained the city's most successful hotel, while Hotels 5, 8 and 9 recorded higher occupancy than in previous breeding seasons following modifications to their design or management. Rissa Citizen Science attributes these improvements to iterative adaptation, continuity of nesting sites, and the placement of hotels close to established colonies, rather than to the provision of artificial structures alone. NINA similarly concluded that kittiwake hotels can provide viable alternative nesting sites when combined with appropriate design and long-term planning.

The initiative also generated practical knowledge about urban coexistence. Successive rounds of monitoring informed changes to the placement, height, orientation, and management of nesting structures, while comparisons across breeding seasons provided evidence about which designs and locations were most readily adopted by kittiwakes. Together, these observations demonstrate how repeated monitoring and experimentation informed adaptive management of the hotels rather than the implementation of a single fixed solution.

Citizen participation also expanded over the course of the initiative. By 2026, the Kittiwalkers programme involved around 50 volunteers contributing regular observations on nest occupancy, breeding activity, deterrence measures, and colony movements. These data have been shared with Tromsø Municipality and other stakeholders, providing an ongoing evidence base for monitoring the city's urban kittiwake population and evaluating management interventions.

The monitoring also documents continuing challenges. Despite the increasing success of several hotels, redevelopment projects, demolition of established colonies, and the continued installation of deterrents on buildings displaced kittiwakes to new nesting locations across the city. Rissa Citizen Science reported that 93 of the 178 nests monitored during the 2025 breeding season had been destroyed or made inaccessible before the 2026 season, although this represented a lower proportion of nest loss than reported the previous year (52% compared with 66% in the monitored area). At the same time, several newly installed hotels attracted breeding birds, while others continued to require modification before becoming established. Taken together, the available evidence suggests that artificial nesting structures have become an increasingly successful component of Tromsø's coexistence strategy, but that their effectiveness continues to depend on adaptive management and is influenced by the parallel use of deterrence measures and redevelopment across the city.

Analysis and Lessons Learned

A distinctive feature of the Norway Nest initiative is that it challenges conventional understandings of more-than-human voice. Rather than relying on formally appointed spokespersons or guardians, the project responded to the birds' continued occupation of building façades, repeated return to preferred nesting sites despite deterrence measures, and responses to successive nesting structures. Drawing on this case, Førde et al. (2026) argue that the initiative illustrates an expanded understanding of participation in which voice is expressed through embodied presence and interpreted through practices of ecological observation, monitoring, and experimentation. Hotels were relocated, redesigned, and modified in response to whether colonies occupied, rejected, or abandoned them, making observation itself a practice of listening to more-than-human interests.

Building on this understanding of voice, Førde et al. interpret the project as illustrating a progression in approaches to multispecies participation. Early responses to urban kittiwakes were characterised primarily by deterrence and exclusion. Subsequent interventions recognised the birds' need for alternative nesting sites through artificial hotels, while later phases increasingly adapted planning decisions to the birds' ecological requirements. This included locating hotels adjacent to established colonies rather than at more distant sites, modifying designs in response to observed nesting behaviour, and adapting planning and construction schedules to align with the birds' seasonal arrival. The authors describe this trajectory as moving from paternalistic management, through recognition, towards more convivial forms of multispecies planning.

The case also highlights the importance of bringing together diverse forms of knowledge in urban governance. Ecological research informed understanding of breeding behaviour and habitat requirements; architects and artists translated these findings into experimental nesting structures; municipal officials coordinated planning and implementation; and cultural institutions created opportunities for public engagement. Rather than privileging a single form of expertise, the project developed through iterative collaboration across scientific, architectural, artistic, managerial, local, and experiential knowledge traditions, with successive interventions refined through repeated cycles of observation and experimentation.

Finally, the case raises broader questions about how the effectiveness of more-than-human democratic innovations should be evaluated. Drawing on Arnstein's (1969) conception of participation as the redistribution of power, Førde et al. (2026) argue that meaningful more-than-human participation extends beyond recognising non-human interests or appointing human representatives to speak on their behalf. The Tromsø initiative suggests that the quality of more-than-human democratic innovation may also be assessed by the extent to which institutions are willing to adapt and redistribute influence in response to more-than-human agency. In this case, planning timelines, architectural designs, and spatial decisions were progressively modified to accommodate the observed behaviour and ecological needs of urban kittiwakes, rather than expecting the birds to conform to predetermined human priorities. More broadly, this case suggests that evaluating more-than-human democratic innovations requires considering not only whether other species are included in decision-making, but also whether planning practices meaningfully challenge anthropocentric hierarchies by enabling more-than-human agency to reshape decisions and urban governance.

At the time of writing, the initiative remains an ongoing process of experimentation. Public documentation does not yet establish the long-term effectiveness of different nesting structures or the extent to which they reduce conflict across the city. Nevertheless, the case provides a documented example of how ecological observation, adaptive design, and interdisciplinary collaboration can create institutional arrangements through which more-than-human interests become materially incorporated into urban planning.

See Also

1. Conference of the Birds
2. I Love Seagulls! An Exhibition About Living Together
3. Rissa Citizen Science
4. Norwegian Institute for Nature Research (NINA)
5. Urban Kittiwakes (Urbane krykkjer)
6. Participedia cases: River Don Living Stewardship Agreement, Confluence of European Water Bodies, Interspecies Council

References

Arnstein, S. R. (1969). A Ladder of Citizen Participation. Journal of the American Institute of Planners, 35(4), 216–224. https://doi.org/10.1080/01944366908977225

Artsdatabanken. (2021). Rødlista for arter 2021: Vurdering av krykkje (Rissa tridactyla).https://lister.artsdatabanken.no/rodlisteforarter/2021/27570

Conference of the Birds. (2023). Kittiwakes in Tromsø. https://theconferenceofthebirds.net/kittiwakes-in-tromso/

Conference of the Birds. (2024). Norway Nest: Kittiwakes. https://theconferenceofthebirds.net/norway-nest-kittiwakes/

Førde, A., Escobar, O., Bua, A., Nash, K., Malstaf, L., Reiertsen, T. K., & Grundvåg, K. (2026). The Ladder of Multispecies Participation. (Complete journal details to be added upon publication.) [VERIFY final bibliographic details]

Forskning.no. (2023, 2 May). Krykkjehotell fungerer med hell. https://www.forskning.no/dyreverden-fugler-norsk-institutt-for-naturforskning/krykkjehotell-fungerer-med-hell/2175348

Norsk institutt for naturforskning (NINA). (2023a, 2 May). Krykkjehotell fungerer med hell.https://www.nina.no/aktuelt/alle-artikler-og-nyheter/krykkjehotell-fungerer-med-hell

Norsk institutt for naturforskning (NINA). (2023b). Urban kittiwakes. (Use the specific NINA report or webpage cited in the text—this currently needs the exact title if you are citing a report rather than the news article.) [VERIFY]

Rissa Citizen Science. (2024). The Kittiwalkers Community Builds Momentum. https://www.rissa-cs.org/blog (locate exact post URL before submission).

Rissa Citizen Science. (2025a). Tromsø's Kittiwalkers: the Mid-Summer Report. https://www.rissa-cs.org/post/troms%C3%B8-s-kittiwalkers-the-mid-summer-report

Rissa Citizen Science. (2025b). What Made the Tromsø Kittiwake Hotels Attractive in 2025? https://www.rissa-cs.org/post/what-made-the-troms%C3%B8-kittiwake-hotels-attractive-in-2025

Rissa Citizen Science. (2026a). 52% of Last Year's Nests Destroyed: Buildings in Tromsø City Centre Are Becoming Kittiwake-proof. https://www.rissa-cs.org/post/52-of-last-year-s-nests-destroyed-buildings-in-troms%C3%B8-city-center-are-becoming-kittiwake-proof

Rissa Citizen Science. (2026b). Tromsø's Kittiwake Hotels Are Filling Up: Mid-season Update. https://www.rissa-cs.org/post/troms%C3%B8-s-kittiwake-hotels-are-filling-up-the-mid-season-update

Tromsø Kommune. (2018). Klima-, miljø- og energiplan 2018–2025. [Official municipal PDF or archive URL—recommended to replace with the direct PDF if available.]

Tromsø Kommune. (2023). «Urbane krykkjer» – mobile krykkjehotell i Muséparken.https://www.tromso.kommune.no/krykkje

Tromsø Kunstforening. (2023). I Love Seagulls! An Exhibition About Living Together.https://www.tromsokunstforening.no/en/exhibitions/i-love-seagulls

External Links

1. Conference of the Birds – Kittiwakes in Tromsø
2. Conference of the Birds – Norway Nest: Kittiwakes
3. Tromsø Kunstforening – I Love Seagulls!
4. Norwegian Institute for Nature Research (NINA)
5. Rissa Citizen Science
6. Tromsø Municipality – Urban Kittiwakes

Notes

Several primary sources were originally published in Norwegian. English translations were generated with the assistance of AI and cross-checked against multiple sources where possible. Because automated translation may not fully capture contextual or technical nuances, readers are encouraged to consult the original Norwegian documents when precise interpretation is important.

Contributor Positionality Statements

The entry is part of the more-than-human democratic innovations collection [link when ready]. It was developed through the research project Mapping emerging practices of nonhuman representation and participation led by Lucy J. Parry and Hans Asenbaum at the Centre for Deliberative Democracy, Claudia de Cordoba Fernandez Farini of Living Imaginaries and Graham Smith at the University of Westminster. The project is funded by Participedia and the Centre for Animals and Social Justice.

This case draws exclusively on publicly available documentation. All descriptive claims are based on documented sources. Interpretive analysis is confined to the Analysis section and informed by the contributor’s broader research on emerging practices of nonhuman representation and participation.